McClure Quiz 2 4/13/11

Aha! Finally getting around to another study guide. Her questions have become better and I need a change of pace from just reading the notes.
Also, will post what I currently have but will take it down, finish the questions tomorrow, and repost.

31. Describe the lobes and ligament of the liver.
Four lobes: left, right, caudate and quadrate (just like in lab...).
Falciform ligament divides right and left lobes, and circle lig. used to be the umbilical cord.


32. Explain the structure anatomically anchors the liver to the stomach.
The lesser omentum!

33. Describe the anatomical relationship between the liver and the gallbladder.
Gallbladder sits directly underneath liver and is connected most directly via the common bile duct.

34. Describe the microscopic structure of the liver? Name the components of portal
triads.
Lobules are the functional units- hexagon in shape, connected by central veins, and made up of smaller hepatocytes.

35. Describe the functions of hepatocytes.
Process nutrients, store fatty vitamins, detoxify the blood, and produce bile

36. Describe the duct system transporting bile.
Gathered from lobules, filtered down to gallbladder via bile ducts (part of the portal triad), secreted into duodenum, reabsorbed in ileum, gathered in hepatic portal system and returned to liver.

37. Describe the compositions and functions of bile.
Made of bile salts (breaking down fats), bilirubin, neutral fats, phospholipids and electrolytes.
Green-yellow color and basic (alkaline) in nature.
Used mainly for breaking down fat.

38. Explain the chemical and neural regulations of bile release, and list the functions
of cholecystokinin.
Refer to q41

39. List the exocrine functions of pancreas.
Acini secrete the pancreatic juices and zymogen granules (found within the acini) release digestive enzymes.

40. Describe the composition of pancreatic juice. Explain the functions of trypsinogen
and procarboxypeptidase in digestion.
It is a watery solution that is slightly basic (for neutralizing chyme). Also full of electrolytes, mainly bicarbonate (HCO3-), and a variety of enzymes like amylase, lipase, nuclease, and the inactive form of protease.

Trypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase, and chymotropsinogen are all proteases and activated in the duodenum by trypsin, which is naturally located on the walls there.

41. Describe the chemical and neural regulation of pancreatic secretion.
There are a few different ways it is activated. It starts with either a buildup of bile salts in the enterohepatic circulation, or cell exposure to fatty chyme and HCl in the duodenum.
Next once these intestinal cells, specifically cholecystokinin, have been exposed to proteins and fat in chyme it causes the hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax and secrete juices. Pressure in this area also produces minor vagal nerve stimulation which does nearly the same thing.
CCK -> enzyme-rich pancreatic juice
Secretin (not a mispelling!) -> bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice
Vagal nerve -> minor pancreatic juice release

42. Name different divisions of small intestine.
Stomach -> Duodenum -> Jejunum -> Ileum -> Cecum

43. Define plicae, villi and microvilli.
Plicae- a fold or ridge of tissue
Villi- finger-like projections increasing surface area
Microvilli- same as villi just smaller

44. List the cells found in the epithelium of the mucosa in small intestine. Describe
the stimuli which trigger and release of intestinal juice from intestinal glands.
Sorry, not going to cover this- ha! Not covered much in notes and a lot of this is covered in other questions anyways I believe.

45. Describe how chyme is digested in the small intestine.
Chyme is release to the small intestines in a hypertonic solution. This solution needs a variety of enzymes, bicarbonate, and bile to break it down. A constant mixing due to peristalsis and segmentation ensure the chyme and chemicals interact.

46. Describe the neural control of mobility of the small intestine. Explain the roles of
gastroileal reflex and gastrin.
Neurons in the intestines coordinate with the brain to move things along. Nerves controlled by acetylcholine can also stimulate these muscles that move chyme along.
As chyme travels along the small intestine these muscle reflexes become stronger, which is known as the gastroileal reflex. The chemical gastrin further increases the strength of this muscle reflex.
A strong reflex is needed to push the chyme into the large intestines.

Midterm Today!

Sorry everyone who reads this (lol), but there is no post going into this test. Hopefully everyone has been reviewing on their own.
McClure's questions for this last section really sucked, so I pretty much just ignored them and committed most of the information to memory.
Not only that but I have been conducting an experiment: I am attempting to see if skipping lecture is detrimental to my grade, since her lectures are almost identical to the slides that she practically reads off anyways.
Didn't mean to start my experiment on the midterm week, but I have been studying intensely the past few days so it should go well.
Good luck!

McClure's Third Quiz 1/26/11

Well, nobody said they minded me doing this at the last minute so, ha! I will.
Also, her questions are totally and completely out of order from how they appear in the chapters.
Which is very frustrating.

24. Define motor, sensory and interneuron.
Motor means from brain to muscle, telling the body to move. Sensory means from body to brain, picking up signals and sending them there. Interneurons are everything in between that relay this info.

25. Describe gross anatomy and function of spinal cord; identify and explain the role
of the following structures: cervical enlargement, lumbar enlargement, conus
medularis, cauda equina, filum terminale and denticulate ligaments.
The ventral fissure and dorsal sulcus divide the spine in half.
Cervical enlargement- serves the nerves of arms
Lumbar enlargement- serves the nerves of legs
Conus medularis- end of the spine
Cauda equina- the final collection of nerve roots at end of spine
Filum terminale- anchors spine to the coccyx
Denticulate ligaments- extensions of pia mater that secure cord to dura mater

26. Describe the gross anatomy of spinal nerves and their roots.

27. Identify gray and white matter of a spinal cord. Name three zones that compose
gray matter. What kinds of neurons are found in posterior, lateral, and anterior
horns?
Gray matter is found in the middle X of spinal cord. White matter surrounds this.
Three zones: no idea really. Hope it's obvious.
Posterior horns: sensory axons found here; senses both internal organs and outside senses
Lateral horns: only found in chest and neck; these relay sympathetic signals
Anterior horns: also known as ventral; these relay motor movement signals to both skeletal and autonomic muscles

28. Explain the composition and organization of the white matter in the spinal cord.
Name and describe the fiber tracts, explain their functions.

29. List the four regions of the spinal cord and spinal nerves associated with these
regions. Define and explain the significance of dermatome.

30. Explain the function of ascending (somatosensory) pathways, give examples.

31. For the somatosensory pathways listed below, give their alternative names,
explain their function, follow their paths from the receptor to the cortex:
 Nonspecific ascending pathway
     Not really sure which ones would be nonspecific since we know the names and locations of all.
 Specific ascending pathway
        Dorsal column-Medial Lemniscal pathways can tell the difference between types of feeling from hands (cuneatus) and feet (gracilis).
        Spinothalamic pathways also relay sensory information including pain, temperature, and coarse touch.
 Spinocerebellar pathway
        Measures the stretch of tendons and ligaments to help us maintain balance, which is the duty of the cerebellum. This pathway is unique because it does not go to the thalamus (terminates directly into cerebellum).

32. Explain the difference between the sensation and perception. How is the
sensation from the visceral organs represented in the cortex? Explain the term
referred pain.
From what I understand sensation is the collection of stimuli, whereas perception is the interpretation of those stimuli.
Visceral organs do not have any way to express pain themselves, so they send signals along nervous pathways to other, external areas that relay pain there instead. This can make it difficult to diagnose what is wrong inside.
Pain is simply an uncomfortable feeling we (generally) want to get away from.

33. Explain the function of descending pathways, give examples. List two types of
somatic motor pathways and follow their paths.
Direct pathways control our fine motor movements like writing and playing sports.
Indirect pathways also control motor movement, but the finer ones that don't require our whole attention like following something/movement with our eyes or head.

34. Apply your knowledge of spinal cord anatomy to predict the symptoms resulting
from spinal cord transsection at different levels.
Pretty much anything from a severed area down will be paralyzed. Waist down is a paraplegic, and neck down is quadriplegic.

35. Explain how the CNS is protected. List three meningeal layers in the order from
superficial to deep.
Protected by bone, membranes (specifically meninges), watery cushion of SCF, and the blood brain barrier.
First is the dura mater, then the arachnoid mater, followed by the pia mater.

36. List two layers of dura mater. Identify on a diagram the structures formed by dura
mater.
Periostial (outer) and meningeal (inner).
Forms the falx cerebri (longitudinal fissure), falx cerebelli (vermis or bum crack of cerebellum), and tantorium cerebelli (between cerebellum and rest of brain).

37. Describe arachnoid mater and pia mater. Identify epidural, subdural, and
subarachnoid spaces and explain their significance.
Arachnoid is a web-like layer that contains CSF and blood vessels (mainly in subarachnoid space). Can also reabsorb stray CSF
Pia- delicate vascular connective tissue that hugs brain tightly.
Epidural space in spine contains veins and fat that protects spine.

38. Describe the ventricular system of the brain and its role in CSF production and
circulation.

39. Explain the function of CSF. Describe its production, circulation and removal.
What is the normal composition of CSF and the changes observed with
inflammation?
CSF is used for buoyancy in the CNS, protecting the brain from trauma, as well as providing nourishment and relaying chemical (not electrical) signals.
It is produced in the choroid plexus of each ventricle.
Composed of glucose, oxygen, vitamins and ions.

40. Define blood-brain barrier. Explain its function. What is the nature of substances
it is effective against? What areas are not protected by the blood-brain barrier and
why?
Provides stable environment in brain and separates neurons from blood-borne substances.
Allows fat-soluble substances across (including alcohol, nicotine, anesthetics), meaning that anything else is not allowed in.
The vomiting center and hypothalamus are not protected by the barrier because they need to be able to test the blood regularly.

McClure's Second Quiz 1/18/11

Alright, so let's admit it, I'm terrible at getting these done earlier in the week allowing for more study time, but since I'm not sure anyone is reading this anyway then I'll try not to worry about it... until someone yells at me in the hallway...



18. List the components and functions of limbic system.  Explain how it interacts with
the cerebral cortex.
Components won't be tested on so ha! These are mostly covered in question 19 though.
It is functionally strongly tied to our emotions. How we interpret and store emotions come from here.
The interpretation is an active process that filters how we perceive everything, adding emotional tags to our current stimuli and making us aware of the "emotional richness" in our lives.


19. Describe the location and function of cingulate gyrus, amygdala, and
hippocampus.  Compare and give examples of two categories of memory.  Which
one has short-term and long-term components?  List strategies proven effective to
convert short-term into long-term memory.  What brain regions are involved in
skill and fact memory? Describe mechanism of new memory formation.
Cingulate- helps us recognize gestures and faces
Amygdala- processes fear/anger primarily among other emotions
Hippo- important in converting new memories into long-term ones
Two categories of memory-
     Sorry, I don't have this info at the moment.
    This is actually covered later in the chapter that she has not yet reached, so not going to worry about it too much. Just a little past the part about sleep gives some info about memory.

20. List two components of reticular formation. What are their roles?
The three nuclei associated are the raphe, medial group, and lateral group.
They are there to filter out weak stimuli (roughly 99% of all stimuli).
Cerebral cortex also helps by keeping us conscious and alert by continuously pulsing our brain.
All members associated are the hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and spinal cord.

21. Define consciousness.  List clinical levels of consciousness.
Consciousness is mainly measured by perception/sensation, voluntary movement, and higher mental processes. A person can be alert, drowsy ("lethargic"), in a stupor, or in a coma (which is also marked by a decrease in oxygen intake).

22. Explain how the brain waves are generated and recorded.  Describe different
types of brainwaves.  What are the changes observed in epilepsy?
Brain waves come from electric activities. Electroencephalographs (EEGs) track this electric activity.
Four types of brainwaves:
   1. Alpha- relaxed and conscious, "idling"
   2. Beta- alert, mentally active
   3. Theta- seen in children, more irregular brain pattern
   4. Delta- typically indicates deep sleep, may also show brain damage
Epilepsy results in uncontrollable muscle movement and jerking, can also cause loss of consciousness. Caused by a mishap in brain chemistry/electric impulses.

23. Name two stages of sleep and explain physiological changes observed during
these stages.  What are the roles of ascending reticular activating system and locus
coeruleus in regulation of motor and sensory activity during sleep?
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) and Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) make up the different parts of sleep. REM is the light sleep experienced first before a person enters the deep sleep of NREM. A person will go between the two throughout a nights sleep, generally going through the NREM during the first half of the night and then slowly come back up through the four stages towards wakefulness as the time to wake up approaches.
During REM a person is more prone to waking, dreams, and is paralyzed by the body's own mechanisms.
NREM is considered the restorative part of sleep, and is generally harder to wake a person from. Brain is in power-down mode.

1st McClure Test

So I am now in McClure's lecture! If it is drastically different from McVay let me know.

1. Name components of central and peripheral nervous system. Compare
compositions and functions of gray and white matter. Define the following terms:
nucleus, ganglion, nerve, and nerve tract. Explain the general structure of brain
and the spinal cord.
CNS- brain and spinal chord
PNS- everything else...
Gray- unmyelinated fiber tracts; used for neuronal processing
White- myelinated fiber tracts; carries information through the brain
Nucleus- a brain structure consisting of a relatively compact cluster of neurons
Ganglion- a cluster of axons found outside of the CNS
Nerve- any bundle of nerve fibers running to various organs and tissues of the body
Nerve Tract- a cluster of axons found inside of the CNS

2. Define the term cephalization-
an evolutionary trend, whereby nervous tissue, over many generations, becomes concentrated toward one end of an organism. This process eventually produces a head region with sensory organs.


3. Briefly describe embryonic development of the brain: name and identify main
components of forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Forms from ectoderm, neural plate invaginates and seals on dorsal side eventually becoming the neural tube.
The top of this neural tube becomes the forebrain (telencephalon and diencephelon), mesenephelon (undivided midbrain), and hindbrain (metencephelon and myelencephelon).

4. Identify five lobes of cerebral hemispheres. Define the terms basal nuclei, cortex,
gyrus, sulcus, and fissure.
Five Lobes: Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and that one in the middle underneath the temporal...
The basal ganglia (or basal nuclei) are a group of nuclei of varied origin (mostly telencephalic embryonal origin, with some diencephalic and mesencephalic elements) in the brains of vertebrates that act as a cohesive functional unit. They are situated at the base of the forebrain and strongly connected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and other brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including voluntary motor control, procedural learning relating to routine behaviors or "habits," eye movements, and cognitive,^[1] emotional functions.
Cortex- the tissue forming the outer layer of an organ or structure in plant or animal
Gyrus- brain ridge
Sulcus- the valleys of the brain
Fissure- crevice: a long narrow depression in a surface


5. Explain hemisphere dominance and lateralization. Give examples of functions
performed by the cortex of only right hemisphere and only left hemisphere. Name
brain structures that connect two hemispheres. Explain the function of motor,
sensory, and association cerebral corteses.
Dominance- whatever side of the brain takes over most of the time
Lateralization- brain doing different things but working together
Right- insight, visual-spatial skills, intuition, artistic skills (creativity)
Left- language, math , logic (logic is a good word here)
Brain structures-

Motor-
Sensory-
Association-

6. Identify the location and explain the functions of primary (somatic) motor cortex,
premotor cortex, Broca’s area, and frontal eye field. What does motor
homunculus represent?
PMC- anterior to central sulcus; conscious movement
PC- anterior to PMS; learned motor skills, sequential action
Broca's- one side (dominant) above temporal; speech
FEF- anterior PC; voluntary eye movement
Homunculus- shows number of neurons/ability of fine control

7. Identify the location and explain the function of primary somatosensory cortex.
Compare primary corteses with association corteses for the following areas:
somatosensory, visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and vestibular. Explain the
difference between the sensation and perception.

8. Identify the location and explain the function of the following association areas of
the cerebral cortex; anterior association area, posterior association area and limbic
association area.
All are centered around the temporal lobe, but do stretch up to the parietal and back to the occipital.
Anterior- intellect, cognition, personality, recall, working memory (judgement, conscience), and develops from environmental feedback
Posterior- recognizing patterns and faces, localizes us in space, and understanding language (written and spoken)
Limbic- establishes memories by associating emotions

9. Name three types of fibers found in CNS and explain their function.
Commissures- connect the two brain hemispheres together
Association fibers- connect different parts within the same hemisphere
Projection fibers- connect the hemispheres with the spinal cord and associated areas

10. What are basal nuclei? Name and identify their components. What is the
function of basal nuclei?
They are "subcortical nuclei." A group of nuclei in the brains of vertebrates, situated at the base of the forebrain.
Consists of caudate and lentiform nuclei.
Function include muscle control, preventing unnecessary action, assist with cognition, and fine-tune learned movements.


11. Name three parts of diencephalon. Identify them on anterior, lateral, and
posterior views of the brain.
Three parts: thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.

12. Explain the role of thalamus in sensory pathways.
Thalamus sorts information and mediates most of what comes into the brain in one way or another.

13. List and identify the components of hypothalamus. What is its function?
Hypothalamus controls autonomic functions and emotions. Auto: body temp, food and water intake/balance, sleep, controls hormones released by anterior pituitary, and produces posterior pituitary hormones.

14. List and identify the components of epithalamus. What is its function?
Epithalamus contains pineal gland, which produces melatonin (sleep cycle). Found on dorsal side of thalamus.

15. Name the three components of the brainstem and explain their function. Explain
its relation to the ventricular system of the brain.
Three components: Midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
Supports and surrounds the ventricular system.

16. Explain the function of the following parts of the midbrain: cerebral peduncles,
superior and inferior colliculi of corpora quadrigemina, substantia nigra, and red
nucleus. List the cranial nerves associated with midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata.
Cerebral peduncle- contain pyramidal motor tracts
Superior colliculi of corpora- visual reflex center
Inferior colliculi of corpora- auditory relay center
Substantia nigra- linked to basal nuclei in function; also produces dopamine
Red nucleus- relay for some descending motor pathways
Cranial nerves associated- trigeminal V, abducens VI, and facial VII

17. Review the gross anatomy of cerebellum. Explain the role of cerebellum in motor
coordination and cognition.
Fine-tunes muscle contractions. All fibers are ipsilateral. Three paired fibers connect to rest of brain.
Initiates voluntary muscle contraction, informs body of position and momentum, calculates smoothest muscle contractions, and sends "blueprints" of coordinated movements out.
Recognizes and predicts the outcome of complex movement. Assists with word association and puzzle solving.

Specific Neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine
Chemical Structure: an ester of acetic acid and choline ("cholinergic")
Place of Action: Both CNS and PNS; only transmitter used in motor movement; important nervous transmitter
Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons: excites muscles; assists our brain and nervous action
Disorders (Too Much/Little): memory loss (Alzheimer), and muscle fatigue/weakness (myasthenia gravis)

Norepinephrine

Chemical Structure: Adrenergic

Place of Action: sugar stores (in all cells), 

Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons: increased heart rate

Disorders (Too Much/Little):

Dopamine

Chemical Structure:

Place of Action:

Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons:

Disorders (Too Much/Little):

Serotonin

Chemical Structure:

Place of Action:

Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons:

Disorders (Too Much/Little):

GABA

Chemical Structure:

Place of Action:

Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons:

Disorders (Too Much/Little):

Glutamate

Chemical Structure:

Place of Action:

Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons:

Disorders (Too Much/Little):

Glycine

Chemical Structure:

Place of Action:

Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons:

Disorders (Too Much/Little):

Endorphins

Chemical Structure:

Place of Action:

Main Effects of Postsynaptic Neurons:

Disorders (Too Much/Little):

screw it. just gonna take a hit for the 1-2 questions this will be on the test. not wasting an hour looking this up

Neuroanatomy Unit III Sect. I

Going clear back to the beginning of Unit III and working my way through. Hopefully I've made it easy to understand where I'm at.


 Name three main functions of nervous system.
Sensory input- gathering information
Integration- interpretation
Motor output- making the body respond to those stimuli

 Describe anatomical organization of nervous system (central and peripheral) and
its components.
Central Nervous System (CNS)- brain and spinal cord
Peripheral NS- everything that used to communicate with the brain and spine

 Describe physiological organization of peripheral nervous system (afferent, efferent). Explain the role of afferent division of PNS and compare its visceral and somatic components. Explain the role of efferent division of PNS and compare its autonomic (visceral) and somatic components. Name two branches of autonomic nervous system and explain their roles in regulation of body functions.
PNS has two parts:
Afferent- carrying impulses to the CNS, has both conscious and unconscious components
Efferent- carrying impulses to the PNS, also has intentional (ie somatic) and automatic parts
The autonomic part is then split into sympathetic (emergencies) and parasympathetic (relaxation) systems

 Describe the cellular components of a neuron (body, axon, dendrite, axon hillock
and synaptic knob).
Neuron body- contains nucleus and organelles, conducts charge to some degree
Axon- carries impulse away from neuron body
Dendrite- carries impulse into neuron body
Axon hillock- where axon begins, sending off the initial charge
synaptic knob- end of axon, releasing neurotransmitters when activated

 Describe three types of neurons based on their structure, explain their function.
Unipolar- axon divides into two, found in the brain and spine
Bipolar- has both a long axon and a long dendrite, found in eye and nose (sensory)
Multipolar- many small dendrites and a long axon, most common

 Give functional classification of neurons (motor, sensory and interneurons). Give
example using reflex arc.
Word for word:
Sensory- afferent neurons
Motor- efferent neurons
Interneurons- associated neurons
Touching a stove triggers reflexive arch, the hard wired, unconscious response necessary when an immediate response is required.

 Explain the following terms: electricity, voltage (potential difference), current, resistance, polarity, electrical gradient, and chemical gradient.
Electricity- stationary or moving electrons and protons
Voltage- electric potential: the difference in electrical charge between two points in a circuit expressed in volts
Current- a flow of electricity through a conductor; "the current was measured in amperes"
Resistance- a material's opposition to the flow of electric current
Polarity- having a pair of equal and opposite charges
Electrical gradient- the difference in electrical charge (valence) across the membrane
Chemical gradient- a difference in the bulk concentration of an ionic species on either side of the membrane

 Name different types of plasma membrane ion channels and explain how they function; give examples. Compare intracellular and extracellular concentration of sodium, potassium and chloride ions. Comment on the membrane permeability for these ions at rest. Explain physiological bases for resting membrane potential.
What ion is mostly responsible for it? Is the resting membrane potential a truly
restful state or is it an active process? What is the role of sodium-potassium
pump in this process? What is the numerical value of resting membrane potential
in a neuron?
There are passive and active ion channels. Passive means that the ions flow with the gradient (electrical and chemical). Most of the time the sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are flowing in these directions. Since these ions (Na and K) they don't want to go up the gradient, they have to be actively transported by pumps in order to reset the cell.
Normally there is too much K inside the cell and too much Na outside the cell. This is what creates the gradients.
Potassium is responsible for the resting membrane potential because it flows out more than sodium flows in.
Maintaining a resting state requires a good effort because these two ions are always trying to slip in/out and having to be pumped back.
Resting membrane potential= -70mV

Unit III for my own Reference

Unit III - Neurophysiology
 Name three main functions of nervous system.
 Describe anatomical organization of nervous system (central and peripheral) and
its components.
 Describe physiological organization of peripheral nervous system (afferent,
efferent).  Explain the role of afferent division of PNS and compare its visceral
and somatic components. Explain the role of efferent division of PNS and
compare its autonomic (visceral) and somatic components.  Name two branches
of autonomic nervous system and explain their roles in regulation of body
functions.
 Describe the cellular components of a neuron (body, axon, dendrite, axon hillock
and synaptic knob).
 Describe three types of neurons based on their structure, explain their function.
 Give functional classification of neurons (motor, sensory and interneurons).  Give
example using reflex arc.
 Explain the following terms: electricity, voltage (potential difference), current,
resistance, polarity, electrical gradient, and chemical gradient.
 Name different types of plasma membrane ion channels and explain how they
function; give examples.  Compare intracellular and extracellular concentration of
sodium, potassium and chloride ions.  Comment on the membrane permeability
for these ions at rest.  Explain physiological bases for resting membrane potential.
What ion is mostly responsible for it?  Is the resting membrane potential a truly
restful state or is it an active process?  What is the role of sodium-potassium
pump in this process?  What is the numerical value of resting membrane potential
in a neuron?
 Define depolarization and hyperpolarization and explain how they are affected by
the change in the membrane permeability of different ions.
 Explain how is the permeability of sodium and potassium voltage-gated channels
regulated.  Describe three states of sodium voltage-gated channels.
 Define action potential.  Name the phases of action potential in a neuron. Explain
their ionic bases. Where action potential is normally generated? What is the role
of sodium-potassium pump in this process?
 Explain the “All or None” principle. Give examples of subthreshold and threshold
impulses.  Will the stronger stimulus case a larger action potential? How is the
strength of a stimulus transmitted in the nervous system?
 Define absolute and relative refractory period.  Explain the ionic bases for these
phenomena.
 Define the terms insulator and conductor.  Give examples.
 Explain how the action potential is spreads along the axon, why does it normally
spread in only one direction, why it is said to be self-propagating and nondecremental?
 Explain the structure and function of myelin.  Compare the speed of conductance
in myelinated and unmyelinated axons.  Explain physiological bases for saltatory
conduction.
 Compare A, B and C fibers.
 Explain what causes action potentials? Is it a spontaneous change or is it caused
by the change in the environment?  Compare graded and action potential.  Name
two types of graded potentials.  BIO 231  Dr. Tanya McVay
 Define receptors and classify them according to the type of energy to which they
respond.  Describe how generator potentials are produced and explore their effects
on action potential production.
 Compare phasic and tonic receptors. Define sensory adaptation.
 Explain how different types of stimuli are conveyed to CNS: type of sensation,
place of origin of sensation and strength of stimulus.
 Explain how the stimulus is passed from one neuron to the other.  Compare
chemical and electrical synapses.
 Identify the parts of the synapse. Explain the mechanism of synaptic transmission.
What is the role of calcium ion in this process?  What is the role of
neurotransmitter?
 Explain how is synaptic transmission terminated.  What are the means by which
the neurotransmitter is removed from the synaptic cleft?
 Explore the following neurotransmitters based on their chemical structure, place
of action, main effects on postsynaptic neurons: Acetylcholine, norepinephrine,
dopamine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate, glycine and endorphins.  Name disorders
associated with their inadequate production.
 Compare excitatory postsynaptic potentials and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
 Name three types of synapses based on their location on a neuron.  
 Compare graded potentials (generator and postsynaptic) and action potentials.
 Define neuronal pool and explain how neuronal recruitment relates to the strength
of the stimulus.  Name four types of neuronal circuits.  Explain the difference
between the serial and parallel processing.

Pancreas and Minor Endocrine Glands

Ok so since the final is tomorrow I guess that I should start putting up the other sections!

 Explore gross and microscopic anatomy of pancreas. Compare hormones to

enzymes produces there. List hormones of the pancreas*. Recall the normal

fasting level of blood glucose and explain how insulin* and glucagon* maintain

this concentration. Relate insulin insufficiency to diabetes type I and II. What are

the symptoms in patients with this disorder and how do they relate to insulin

function? What preventative measures can be taken by diabetic patients and

people at risk?

Anatomy- because the pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine glands it has both types of setup on the microscopic level. The outside of cell groups are exocrine, that all circle/focus around a central canal that they disperse their hormones into. The middle area, aka the Islets of Langerhans, is an endocrine area.

Hormones of pancreas:

     Glucagon- raises blood sugar levels. Breaks down glycogen, fatty acids and fat into sugar. Acts on 2nd messenger (cAMP).

     Insulin- "Store fuel for later." Activates tyrosine kinase in cells that makes them increase glucose uptake, increase glycogen synthesis, increase ATP amounts from glucose, increase amino acid uptake and protein production, and increase fat production.

     Somatostatin- an inhibitory hormone

     Pancreatic polypeptide- self regulate the pancreas secretion activities

Normal fasting sugar level- 80mg/dL

Insulin and glucagon maintain homeostasis through humoral regulation. Not much more to say on that...

Diabetes mellitus- lack of insulin production, forcing body to use fatty acids as food. Manifests in frequent peeing, sugary urine, constant thirst, and constant hunger. All of this is because the body cannot hold onto sugars.

     Type 1- autoimmune destruction of pancreatic B cells (the insulin producers)

     Type 2- abnormal insulin that is either not recognized or is destroyed by immune system

Preventative measures: lose weight (most important since obesity and diabetes work together well) by eating healthy and exercising. Remind them that they have the power to keep their diabetes under control and the horrible things that can happen if they don't :D

 List minor endocrine glands, their hormones and major effects on the body.

The only list I could find to address this is under the heading, General Organization of the Endocrine System (Unit IV Lec. I). If there are more please let me know.

Adipose tissue- lipton (appetite control) and resistin (controls energy homeostasis)

Intestinal wall- cholecystokinin (triggered by fats, tells gallbladder to release digestive enzymes)

Stomach- gastrin (stimulates gastric acid production), histamine (triggers inflammatory response), endorphins (happy drug), serotonin (another happy hormone), cholecystokinin (fat digestion), and somatostatin (inhibitory hormone)

Kidney- erythropoietin (red blood cell production) and calcitriol (tells body to absorb calcium and put it in the blood)

Heart- Atrial natriuretic peptide and brain type natriuretic peptide both lower blood pressure

I'm pretty sure she said that we only have to know the main one but since she didn't have the "most important one" in her notes I covered all of them.

Study Guide for Dec 1 Quiz

Quiz 7 (or something)- Happening December 1

So I'm skipping a large part of the study guide, going straight to the part that has to do with this week's test. Call it egotistical but I want a good grade. Later I'll go back at least to section III before the final (since apparently III and IV make up roughly 70% of the test).

 Name factors that determine strength of physiological response caused by

hormone.

Strength of hormonal a response is dependent on how receptive the target cell is, and how concentrated the dosed hormone is released in the blood (the more the greater the response).

 List the three ways the body regulates hormonal production. Explain humoral,

neural and hormonal regulations of hormone production. Compare negative and

positive feedback mechanisms. Give examples of hormones in each category.

The body regulates hormones in these three ways:

1. Humoral stimulation, or in other words, the body constantly "tasting" the blood to make sure it has the right composition.

2. Neural stimulation- this system generally just tends to do it's thing automatically. By sending out it's own transmitters it can manipulate the endocrine system.

3. Endocrine stimulation- One endocrine gland affects another endocrine gland, which affects another endocrine gland. In a snowball sort of way, every endocrine gland can influence another.

Fortunately there are blocks in place to prevent it from getting too unruly. Positive Feedback simply means that the endocrine glands feed off another in a self perpetuating cycle. Negative Feedback conversely means that one endocrine gland in the perpetuating loop has had enough and tells the others to close shop.

 Explain the types of hormone interaction at the target cells.

Easy! McVay loves to cover this one as it's the basis for hormone-cell interaction. Simply put, amino acid-based hormones (amino acids, peptides, poly-peptides, and proteins) are all dissolved in the plasma of the blood and attach to the surface of the target cell when passing by. On the other hand, the more complex molecules like steroids and other fatty molecules (anyone know any others?) require special protein transports to get to their destinations. Upon arrival steroids will pass through the membrane (because like dissolves/passes through like) and begin transcription.

 Name an endocrine gland responsible for neural regulation of endocrine system.

Explain how releasing and inhibiting factors regulate hypophyseal activity

(hypothalamo-pituitary axis). List hormones of hypothalamus* and their effects

on pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus regulates both neural and endocrine systems. Apparently the pituitary gland is the puppet of the hypothalamus, doing its bidding like the mind controlled servant that it is. The two function together quite well- the hypothalamus releases hormones that switches both anterior and posterior pituitarys on, the anterior pituitary releases its hormones into the body, the hypothalamus is satisfied with the reaction and produces inhibiting "factors" (hormones).
Listing the hormones and their effects is well above my pay-grade. (will probably come back to this)

 Recall anatomy of pituitary gland and hypophyseal portal system. Explore the

differences between neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis.

Not only does the hypothalamus reign supreme over the pituitary gland but it does it in two separate ways: through hormonal regulation (on the anterior pituitary) and neural stimulation (on the posterior pituitary, which I believe does have a small hormone gap the jump as part of the process, which then starts off the neural response).
Adenohypophysis= anterior pituitary
Neurohypophysis= posterior and is considered part of the hypothalamus because of its neuronal connection.

 List hormones of anterior pituitary* and explain their role in regulation of

endocrine system. What abnormalities result from inadequate production of these

hormones? Based on the function of these hormones, predict the symptoms in

patients with these abnormalities.

All hormones of the anterior pituitary (AP) are called Adenohypophysis. They are also more commonly referred to as trophic hormones, and are listed next:

Growth hormone (GH)- not only affects epiphyseal plates but every cell in the body. Causes production of somatomedins by muscle, liver, and bone (also promotes growth and mediates GH). Too little can lead to pituitary dwarfism. Too much causes gigantism (children) and acromegaly (adults).

Prolactin- stimulates milk production and parental behavior (aka child attachment). Hypothalamus sends Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH, a seratonin) or Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH, a dopamine) to anterior pituitary (AP) as part of regulation. Prolactin is known to cause tumors in the AP, which can cause headaches, inappropriate lactation, off-beat menstrual cycles, and male impotence.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)- stimpulates production of glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticosteron) by the adrenal cortex (which is also partly covered later!). Hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) to increase ACTH production, which follows the circadian rhythm. In other words, ACTH helps as wake up in the morning and taper off at night by flowing or limiting the amount of energy to us, and it is all controlled by CRH from the hypothalamus.

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)- released by AP. As usual it starts with hypothalamus that releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone, which in turn causes AP to release TSH, which activates thyroid, which makes thyroxin that affects target cell and turns off (negative response) AP and hypothalamus.

Gonadotropins- includes Luteinizing Hormone (LH, promotes synthesis of gonadal hormones in ovaries and testes) and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH, promotes development of egg and sperm). Both are only used after puberty starts, and are activated by Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH).

Something that I've noticed is that everything that comes from the hypothalamus has "Releasing Hormone" as part of the name. This makes it easy to identify whether it is coming from the hypothalamus or the AP.

 List hormones of posterior pituitary*. Describe the role of oxytocin during labor

and milk ejection. Explain why the production of oxytocin* increases during/

after labor. Explain the role of ADH in fluid/electrolyte balance. What

abnormalities result from inadequate production of this hormone? Apply your

knowledge of effects of ADH on target cells to predict symptoms in patients with

inadequate production of this hormone.

The two major hormones of the posterior pituitary are Oxytocin and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Oxytocin is important during birth because it increases uterine contractions via a positive feedback cycle that begins with dilation of the cervix. It is important during breast feeding because it causes the smooth muscle to push the milk out. Lastly, it is the bonding hormone for moms, causing them to become more effectionate with the newborn. This can be helpful when the mother experiences post-partum depression, getting a distant mom to start feeling close with the newborn.
In males it causes ejaculation lol.
Antidiuretic means "retain water" ("against peeing"). When osmorecepters taste too many electrolytes in the blood (humoral regulation) then ADH is sent to the kidneys to retain water. More water is absorbed back into the body and extra concentrated pee is produced. ADH also causes vasoconstriction, raising blood pressure.
If a person cannot produce enough ADH then there is a good chance they will develop diabetes insipidus, where the body can't produce concentrated urine and constantly suffers from an electrolyte balance.
Too much ADH leads to sodium/electrolyte deficiencies, water retention, and other problems having to deal with holding onto too much water and not enough other stuff.
Both posterior pituitary gland hormones are produced in the hypothalamus (paraventricular nucleus and supraoptic nucleus, which are names of different types of nuclei that are both found in the hypothalamus). Both also use the PIP2 mechanism to affect the target cells.

 Explore anatomy of thyroid gland. List three hormones* produced there. Explain

how thyroid hormones (T3, T4) are produced and regulate metabolic rates in the

body. Apply your knowledge of effects of thyroid hormones on target cells to

predict symptoms in patients with inadequate production of these hormones.

What are these abnormalities?
It's below the Adams apple on both sides with a small connection between both sides. Study the images to get the microscopic structure.
It produces triiodothyronine (T3) (10%), thyroxine (T4) (90%) and calcitonin. Iodine is mixed with the colloid inside of the thyroid gland to produce T4. T3 is much more powerful than T4 although it is produced much less frequently, but is converted frequently to T3, especially in the kidneys and liver. Although it is an amino-based hormone it is one of the few that cannot travel alone in the bloodstream and must attach to other proteins (usually liver proteins like albumin and thyroxin) to reach target cells (and affects the nucleus of the celll). It is required by all cells, and is used to increase metabolic activity. This means it throws the cell into gear, consuming oxygen, sugars, ATP, fat, and producing more heat.
It also regulates growth and development, which is important the fetus and infants (lack= cerebral damage).
Deficiencies manifest in Simple Goiter, dwarfism, and retardation.

 Explain the role of calcitonin* and parathyroid* hormone in regulation of calcium

blood concentration. Predict the outcomes for the patient with hypoparathyroidism.
Calcitonin and parathyroid work constantly to keep the blood concentrations of calcium in check. Calcitonin targets osteoblasts, telling them to take calcium out of the blood to store in bone. Conversely, parathyroid hormone targets the osteoclasts, making them dissolve bone for use in the blood. It also tells the kidneys to hold onto calcium during filtration.
Hypothyroidism is a deficiency of calcium in the blood. This affects everything that uses calcium, including muscles, brain, and nervous system. It's used a lot!

 Explore gross and microscopic anatomy of adrenal gland. List three zones of

adrenal cortex and give examples of hormones* produced there. What is the role

of aldosterone* in regulating blood pressure and electrolyte balance? Apply you

knowledge of aldosterone’s function to explain symptoms of Conn’s syndrome.
The outer section is called the cortex, the inner the medulla. Each part produces very different hormones.
Three zones of cortex:
1. Zona glomerulosa- mineralcorticoids
2. Zona fasciculata- glucocorticoids
3. Zona reticularis- gonadocorticoids
All are considered "corticosteroids"
Aldosterone causes water retention (same effect as ADH) by telling the kidneys to retain sodium- water follows the sodium (Na+) along the concentration gradient. It also tells the kidneys to get rid of potassium (K+). Consequently the extra fluid in the system raises blood pressure.
Conn's syndrome is overproduction of Aldosterone, which leads to too much water and Na+ in the body and a lack of K+. This causes hypertension, edema, and muscle weakness (action potential can't be generated).

 Explain the circadian rhythms in production of cortisol*. Apply you knowledge of

hormone’s effects to explain symptoms of Addison’s and Cushing’s syndrome.

Cortisol is released in accordance with our circadian rhythm, putting out more while we're awake and turning off at night (or whenever we sleep...). It gets the body to take energy from all the sources, sugar, fat, and proteins, and use it for activity. Production is regulated by ACTH (found in the anterior pituitary section), and returns a negative feedback to ACTH. Oddly enough cortisol also suppresses our immune response.
Addison's syndrome (lack of adrenal gland hormones)- hypoglycemia, hyperpigmentation (don't know why...), dehydration, and excessive acid and K+ in blood.
Cushing's syndrome (excessive corticosteroids)- excessive sugar in blood, obesity, poor wound healing, hypertension, stretch marks, and masculine hair growth.

 Explain how hormones of adrenal medulla* help body to cope with stress. What

abnormality results from overproduction of these hormones?

Epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%) cause an increase in heart rate and contractibility, increased blood pressure, peripheral vasoconstriction (which is just another way of increasing blood pressure...), and hyperglycemia. Glucocoricoids are much more effective but these are good for quick situations.

Overproduction can be cause by tumors on adrenal medulla, leading to hyperglycemia, tachycardia (fast heart rate), and hypertension.

All hormones of adrenal gland prepare for stress!

Readers, sorry if this was a long dry read! It was definitely a long, dry write. There are a lot of hormones to be known for this quiz. It's crazy how much material can pile up from not having a quiz for two weeks.

Hang in there though! Term is almost over :)

For my own reference

Just putting all the sectino IV study guide here for my own quick reference

Unit IV

* For all hormones mentioned below, study:

 Site of production

 Chemical structure (amino acid, protein, steroid)

 Target cells

 Type of receptors on the target cells

 Mechanism of action

 Effects on the target cells

 Regulation of production

It might be worthwhile to create a table with these categories and fill it out as you

prepare for class.

 Define the function of the endocrine system

 Compare endocrine vs. exocrine glands. What are the paracrine and autocrine

cells? Give examples of the glands that function exclusively in endocrine mode,

endocrine and exocrine modes, have endocrine and neural components, and have

minor endocrine components.

 Define hormone and name its main characteristics. Classify hormones based on

their chemical structures.

 Explain why only the target cells are sensitive to the hormonal stimulation. Give

examples of effects in target cells induced by this stimulation.

 Name mechanisms of action by which hormones stimulate target cells. What

properties of hormones determine whether they stimulate intracellular or surface

receptors?

 Explain tyrosin kinase mechanism of action (bypassing 2nd messenger). Give

examples of hormones that act that way.

 Explain 2nd messenger mechanism of action. What is the role of cAMP? Give

examples of hormones that act that way.

 Explain PIP/calcium mechanism of action (3rd messenger). What substances act

as 2nd and third messengers? Give examples of hormones that act that way.

 Explain intracellular receptor stimulation mechanism of action (gene stimulation).

Give examples of hormones that act that way.

 Name factors that determine strength of physiological response caused by

hormone.

 List the three ways the body regulates hormonal production. Explain humoral,

neural and hormonal regulations of hormone production. Compare negative and

positive feedback mechanisms. Give examples of hormones in each category.

 Explain the types of hormone interaction at the target cells.

 Name an endocrine gland responsible for neural regulation of endocrine system.

Explain how releasing and inhibiting factors regulate hypophyseal activity

(hypothalamo-pituitary axis). List hormones of hypothalamus* and their effects

on pituitary gland.

 Recall anatomy of pituitary gland and hypophyseal portal system. Explore the

differences between neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis.

 List hormones of anterior pituitary* and explain their role in regulation of

endocrine system. What abnormalities result from inadequate production of these

hormones? Based on the function of these hormones, predict the symptoms in

patients with these abnormalities.

BIO 231 Dr. Tanya McVay

 List hormones of posterior pituitary*. Describe the role of oxytocin during labor

and milk ejection. Explain why the production of oxytocin* increases during/

after labor. Explain the role of ADH in fluid/electrolyte balance. What

abnormalities result from inadequate production of this hormone? Apply your

knowledge of effects of ADH on target cells to predict symptoms in patients with

inadequate production of this hormone.

 Explore anatomy of thyroid gland. List three hormones* produced there. Explain

how thyroid hormones (T3, T4) are produced and regulate metabolic rates in the

body. Apply your knowledge of effects of thyroid hormones on target cells to

predict symptoms in patients with inadequate production of these hormones.

What are these abnormalities?

 Explain the role of calcitonin* and parathyroid* hormone in regulation of calcium

blood concentration. Predict the outcomes for the patient with

hypoparathyroidism.

 Explore gross and microscopic anatomy of adrenal gland. List three zones of

adrenal cortex and give examples of hormones* produced there. What is the role

of aldosterone* in regulating blood pressure and electrolyte balance? Apply you

knowledge of aldosterone’s function to explain symptoms of Conn’s syndrome.

 Explain the circadian rhythms in production of cortisol*. Apply you knowledge of

hormone’s effects to explain symptoms of Addison’s and Cushing’s syndrome.

 Explain how hormones of adrenal medulla* help body to cope with stress. What

abnormality results from overproduction of these hormones?

 Explore gross and microscopic anatomy of pancreas. Compare hormones to

enzymes produces there. List hormones of the pancreas*. Recall the normal

fasting level of blood glucose and explain how insulin* and glucagon* maintain

this concentration. Relate insulin insufficiency to diabetes type I and II. What are

the symptoms in patients with this disorder and how do they relate to insulin

function? What preventative measures can be taken by diabetic patients and

people at risk?

 List minor endocrine glands, their hormones and major effects on the body.